Bibliography of material on Decimal Arithmetic [Index] Decimal Arithmetic: Representations

alfonseca1977 ¿Web?	An APL interpreter and system for a small computer, M. Alfonseca, M. L. Tavera, and R. Casajuana, IBM Systems Journal, Vol. 16 #1, pp18–40, IBM, 1977. Abstract: The design and implementation of an experimental APL system on the small, sensor-based System/7 is described. Emphasis is placed on the solution to the problem of fitting a full APL system into a small computer.    The system has been extended through an I/O auxiliary processor to make it possible to use APL in the management and control of the System/7 sensor-based I/O operations.
bernal2006 ¿Web?	Integer Representation of Decimal Numbers for Exact Computations, Javier Bernal and Christoph Witzgall, Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Vol. 111 #2, pp79–88, National Institute of Standards and Technology, March-April 2006. Abstract: A scheme is presented and software is documented for representing as integers input decimal numbers that have been stored in a computer as double precision floating point numbers and for carrying out multiplications, additions and subtractions based on these numbers in an exact manner. The input decimal numbers must not have more than nine digits to the left of the decimal point. The decimal fractions of their floating point representations are all first rounded off at a prespecified location, a location no more than nine digits away from the decimal point. The number of digits to the left of the decimal point for each input number besides not being allowed to exceed nine must then be such that the total number of digits from the leftmost digit of the number to the location where round-off is to occur does not exceed fourteen.
chart1966 ¿Web?	Automatic Controlled Precision Calculations, Bruce A. Chartres, Journal of the ACM, Vol. 13 #3, pp386–403, ACM Press, July 1966. Abstract: Recent developments in computer design and error analysis have made feasible the use of variable precision arithmetic and the preparation of programs that automatically determine their own precision requirements. Such programs enable the user to specify the accuracy he wants, and yield answers guaranteed to lie within the bounds prescribed. A class of such programs, called “contracting error programs”, is defined in which the precision is determined by prescribing error bounds on the data. A variant of interval arithmetic is defined which enables a limited class of algorithms to be programmed as contracting error programs. A contracting error program for the solution of simultaneous linear equations is described, demonstrating the application of the idea to a wider class of problems.
chen1971 URL ¿Web?	Decimal Number Compression, Tien Chi Chen, Internal IBM memo to Dr. Irving T. Ho, 4pp, IBM, 29 March 1971. Abstract: The fact that four bits can represent 16 different states, but a decimal digit exploits only 10 of then (0-9) has been a valid criticism against decimal arithmetic. On the other hand, it is well known that a number with several decimal digits can be reexpressed into binary, leading to a 20% gain in the number of bits used. Examples are, two decimal digits (8 bits) reexpressed as a seven-bit number and three decimal digits (twelve bits) reexpressed as a ten-bit number. ... Note: Available at: http://speleotrove.com/decimal/chen1971-memo-to-Ho.pdf
chen1975 ¿Web?	Storage-Efficient Representation of Decimal Data, Tien Chi Chen and Irving T. Ho, CACM Vol. 18 #2, pp49–52, ACM Press, January 1975. Abstract: Usually n decimal digits are represented by 4n bits in computers. Actually, two BCD digits can be compressed optimally and reversibly into 7 bits, and three digits into 10 bits, by a very simple algorithm based on the fixed-length combination of two variable field-length encodings. In over half of the cases the compressed code results from the conventional BCD code by simple removal of redundant 0 bits. A long decimal message can be subdivided into three-digit blocks, and separately compressed; the result differs from the asymptotic minimum length by only 0.34 percent. The hardware requirement is small, and the mappings can be done manually.
cohen1983 ¿Web?	CADAC: A Controlled-Precision Decimal Arithmetic Unit, Marty S. Cohen, T. E. Hull, and V. Carl Hamacher, IEEE Transactions on Computers, Vol. 32 #4, pp370–377, IEEE, April 1983. Abstract: This paper describes the design of an arithmetic unit called CADAC (clean arithmetic with decimal base and controlled precision). Programming language specifications for carrying out “ideal” floating-point arithmetic are described first. These specifications include detailed requirements for dynamic precision control and exception handling, along with both complex and interval arithmetic at the level of a programming language such as Fortran or PL/I.     CADAC is an arithmetic unit which performs the four floating-point operations add/subtract/multiply/divide on decimal numbers in such a way as to support all the language requirements efficiently. A three-level pipeline is used to overlap two-digit-at-a-time serial processing of the partial products/remainders. Although the logic design is relatively complex, the performance is efficient, and the advantages gained by implementing programmer-controlled precision directly in the hardware are significant.
cornea2007 URL ¿Web?	A Software Implementation of the IEEE 754R Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic Using the Binary Encoding Format, Marius Cornea, Cristina Anderson, John Harrison, Ping Tak Peter Tang, Eric Schneider, and Charles Tsen, Proceedings of the 18th IEEE Symposium on Computer Arithmetic, ISBN 0-7695-2854-6, ISBN 978-0-7695-2854-0, pp29–37, IEEE, June 2007. Abstract: The IEEE Standard 754-1985 for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic was revised, and an important addition is the definition of decimal floating-point arithmetic. This is intended mainly to provide a robust, reliable framework for financial applications that are often subject to legal requirements concerning rounding and precision of the results, because the binary floating-point arithmetic may introduce small but unacceptable errors. Using binary floating-point calculations to emulate decimal calculations in order to correct this issue has led to the existence of numerous proprietary software packages, each with its own characteristics and capabilities. IEEE 754R decimal arithmetic should unify the ways decimal floating-point calculations are carried out on various platforms. New algorithms and properties are presented in this paper which are used in a software implementation of the IEEE 754R decimal floatingpoint arithmetic, with emphasis on using binary operations efficiently. The focus is on rounding techniques for decimal values stored in binary format, but algorithms for the more important or interesting operations of addition, multiplication, division, and conversions between binary and decimal floating-point formats are also outlined. Performance results are included for a wider range of operations, showing promise that our approach is viable for applications that require decimal floating-point calculations.
cowlis2001 ¿Web?	A Decimal Floating-Point Specification, Michael F. Cowlishaw, Eric M. Schwarz, Ronald M. Smith, and Charles F. Webb, Proceedings of the 15th IEEE Symposium on Computer Arithmetic, ISBN 0-7695-1150-3, pp147–154, IEEE, June 2001. Abstract: Even though decimal arithmetic is pervasive in financial and commercial transactions, computers are still implementing almost all arithmetic calculations using binary arithmetic. As chip real estate becomes cheaper it is becoming likely that more computer manufacturers will provide processors with decimal arithmetic engines. Programming languages and databases are expanding the decimal data types available while there has been little change in the base hardware. As a result, each language and application is defining a different arithmetic and few have considered the efficiency of hardware implementations when setting requirements.     In this paper, we propose a decimal format which meets the requirements of existing standards for decimal arithmetic and is efficient for hardware implementation. We propose this specification in the hope that designers will consider providing decimal arithmetic in future microprocessors and that future decimal software specifications will consider hardware efficiencies. Note: Eric Schwarz’s Presentation foils are available here.
cowlis2002 ¿Web?	Densely Packed Decimal Encoding, Michael F. Cowlishaw, IEE Proceedings – Computers and Digital Techniques, Vol. 149 #3, ISSN 1350-2387, pp102–104, IEE, London, May 2002. Abstract: Chen-Ho encoding is a lossless compression of three Binary Coded Decimal digits into 10 bits using an algorithm which can be applied or reversed using only simple Boolean operations. An improvement to the encoding which has the same advantages but is not limited to multiples of three digits is described. The new encoding allows arbitrary-length decimal numbers to be coded efficiently while keeping decimal digit boundaries accessible. This in turn permits efficient decimal arithmetic and makes the best use of available resources such as storage or hardware registers.
cowlis2002b URL ¿Web?	The ‘telco’ benchmark, M. F. Cowlishaw, URL: http://speleotrove.com/decimal, 3pp, IBM Hursley Laboratory, May 2002. Abstract: This benchmark was devised in order to investigate the balance between Input and Output (I/O) time and calculation time in a simple program which realistically captures the essence of a telephone company billing application.     In summary, the application reads a large input file containing a suitably distributed list of telephone call durations (each in seconds). For each call, a charging rate is chosen and the price calculated and rounded to hundreths. One or two taxes are applied (depending on the type of call) and the total cost is converted to a character string and written to an output file. Running totals of the total cost and taxes are kept; these are displayed at the end of the benchmark for verification.
edgar1979 ¿Web?	FOCUS Microcomputer Number System, Albert D. Edgar and Samuel C. Lee, Communications of the ACM Vol. 22 #3, pp166–177, ACM Press, March 1979. Abstract: FOCUS is a number system and supporting computational algorithms especially useful for microcomputer control and other signal processing applications. FOCUS has the wide-ranging character of floating-point numbers with a uniformity of state distributions that give FOCUS better than a twofold accuracy advantage over an equal word length floating-point system. FOCUS computations are typically five times faster than single precision fixed-point or integer arithmetic for a mixture of operations, comparable in speed with hardware arithmetic for many applications. Algorithms for 8-bit and 16-bit implementations of FOCUS are included.
euro1997 URL ¿Web?	The Introduction of the Euro and the Rounding of Currency Amounts, European Commission, 29pp, European Commission Directorate General II Economic and Financial Affairs, 1997. Abstract: The rounding rules laid down in the legal framework of the euro are an integral part of the monetary law of the euro area. The legal equality of the euro unit and the national currency units is based on their application and the application of the conversion rates. The basic rules laid down in the Council Regulation (EC) No 1103/97 are...
fenw1972 ¿Web?	A Binary Representation for Decimal Numbers, Peter M. Fenwick, Australian Computer Journal, Vol. 4 #4 (now Journal of Research and Practice in Information Technology), pp146–149, Australian Computer Society Inc., November 1972. Abstract: A number system is described which combines the programming convenience of decimal numbers with the hardware advantages of binary arithmetic. The number format resembles some integer floating-point formats, except that the exponent is associated with a base of 10, rather than some power of 2. It is shown that arithmetic in the new representation is little more difficult than for ordinary floating-point numbers, and methods are given for implementing the “decimal” shifts which are a consequence of the exponent base.
hp71spec1983 ¿Web?	Chapter 13 – Internal Data Representations, Hewlett Packard Company, Software Internal Design Specification for the HP-71, Vol. 1 Part #00071-90068, pp13.1–13.17, Hewlett Packard Company, December 1983. Abstract: This chapter discusses the format in which the HP-71 represents numeric or string data in memory or in the CPU registers. Note: Manual available from The Museum of HP Calculators (www.hpmuseum.org).
hull1980 ¿Web?	Principles, Preferences and Ideals for Computer Arithmetic, Thomas E. Hull, Christian H. Reinsch, and John R. Rice, CSD-TR-339, 13pp, Dept. of Computer Science, Purdue University, June 1980. Abstract: This paper presents principles and preferences for the implementation of computer arithmetic and ideals for the arithmetic facilities in future programming languages. The implementation principles and preferences are for the current approaches to the design of arithmetic units. The ideals are for the long term development of programming languages, with the hope that arithmetic units will be built to support the requirements of programming languages.
johan1980 ¿Web?	Decimal Shifting for an Exact Floating Point Representation, J. D. Johannes, C. Dennis Pegden, and F. E. Petry, Computers and Electrical Engineering, Vol. 7 #3, pp149–155, Elsevier, September 1980. Abstract: A floating point representation which permits exact conversion of decimal numbers is discussed. This requires the exponent to represent a power of ten, and thus decimal shifts of the mantissa are needed. A specialized design is analyzed for the problem of division by ten, which is needed for decimal shifting.
johnst1989 ¿Web?	Higher Radix Floating Point Representations, P. Johnstone and F. Petry, Proceedings of the 9th Symposium on Computer Arithmetic, ISBN 0-8186-8963-3, pp128–135, IEEE Computer Society Press, September 1989. Abstract: This paper examines the feasibility of higher radix floating point representations, and in particular, decimal based representations. Traditional analyses of such representations have assumed the format of a floating point datum to be roughly identical to that of traditional binary floating point encodings such as the IEEE P754 task group standard representations. We relax this restriction and propose a method of encoding higher radix floating point data with range, precision, and storage requirements comparable to those exhibited by traditional binary representations. Results from McKeeman’s Maximum and Average Relative Representational Error (MRRE and ARRE) analyses, Brent’s RMS error evaluation, Matula’s ratio of significance space and gap functions, and Brown and Richman’s exponent range estimates are extended to accomodate the proposed representation. A decimal alternative to traditional binary representations is proposed, and the behavior of such a system is contrasted with that of a comparable binary system.
johnst1993 ¿Web?	Rational Number Approximation in Higher Radix Floating Point Systems, P. Johnstone and F. Petry, Computers and Mathematics with Applications, Vol. 25 #6, pp103–108, Pergamon Press, 1993. Abstract: Recent proposals have suggested that suitably encoded non-binary floating point representations might offer range and precision comparable to binary systems of equal word size. This is of obvious importance in that it allows computation to be performed on decimal operands without the overhead or error of base conversion while maintaining the error performance and representational characteristics of more traditional encodings. There remains, however, a more general question on the effect of the choice of radix on the ability of fioating point systems to represent arbitrary rational numbers. Mathematical researchers have long recognized that some bases offer some representational advantages in that they generate fewer nonterminate values when representing arbitrary rational numbers. Base twelve, for example, has long been considered preferred over base ten because of its inclusion of three in its primary factorization allowing finite representation of a greater number of rational numbers.     While such results are true for abstract number systems, little attention has been paid to machine based computation and its finite resources. In this study, such results are considered in an environment more typical of computer based models of number systems. Specifically, we consider the effect of the choice of floating point base on rational number approximation in systems which exhibit the typical characteristics of floating point representations – normalized encodings, limited exponent range and storage allocated in a fixed number of ‘bits’ per datum. The frequency with which terminate and representable results can be expected is considered for binary, decimal, and other potentially interesting bases.
johnst1994 ¿Web?	Design and Analysis of Non-binary Radix Floating Point Representations., P. Johnstone and F. Petry, Computers and Electrical Engineering, Vol. 20 #1, pp39–50, Elsevier, January 1994. Abstract: This paper examines the feasibility of higher radix floating point representations and in particular decimal based representations. Traditional analyses of such representations have assumed the format of a floating point datum to be roughly identical to that of traditional binary floating point encodings such as the IEEE P754 task group standard representations. We relax this restriction and propose a method of encoding higher radix floating point data with range, precision, and storage requirements comparable to those exhibited by traditional binary representations. Results from McKeeman’s Maximum and Average Relative Representational Error (MRRE and ARRE) analyses, Brent’s RMS error evaluation, Matula’s ratio of significance space and gap functions, and Brown and Richman’s exponent range estimates are extended to accomodate the proposed representation. A decimal alternative to traditional binary representations is proposed, and the behavior of such a system is contrasted with that of a comparable binary system. Note: Almost identical to 1989 Higher Radix Floating Point Representations by the same authors.
johnst2001 ¿Web?	Architecture and Algorithms for Processing Non-binary Floating Point Radices, Paul Johnstone and Frederick E. Petry, unpublished paper, 39pp, pers. comm., July 2001. Abstract: Recent studies have proposed several non-binary floating point representations which possess most of the storage and algorithmic efficiencies of traditional binary systems with no sacrifice of precision and only modest reductions in range. Such systems possess inherent advantages in that they employ less complicated conversion algorithms and are less prone to errors in representation. Additionally, non-binary systems tend to produce more precise arithmetic results in that common problem of truncation of an infinitely repeating quotient occurs with a lesser frequency.     However, as has been previously observed, traditional binary floating representations are most efficiently adapted to the prevailing choices of technology and system architecture. Previous research has left undone the quantification and evaluation of the algorithms and componentry necessary to effect the proposed representations in a fully realized system. We consider in this study the expected impact of adding the capacity to process one of the proposed non-binary radix representations within a conventional computer system. Since decimal representations are clearly the overwhelming impetus for these studies, discussion will focus solely on base 10 systems. Examination of implementation issues are directed toward the following areas: the implementation of floating point representations in contemporary computer architectures, the design of any extensions to such systems, the effects on system complexity and cost, and, finally, resulting algorithmic revisions.
keir1975b ¿Web?	Compatible number representations, R. A. Keir, Conf. Rec. 3rd Symp. Comp. Arithmetic CH1017-3C, pp82–87, IEEE Computer Society, 1975. Abstract: A compatible number system for mixed fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic is described in termsof number formats and opcode sequences (for hardwired or microcoded control). This inexpensive system can be as fast as fixed-point arithmetic on integers, is faster than normalized arithmetic in floating point, gets answers identical to those of normalized arithmetic, and automatically satisfies the Algol-60 mixed-mode rules. The central concept is the avoidance of meaningless “normalization” following arithmetic operations. Adoption of this system could lead to simpler compilers.
knuth1998 URL ¿Web?	The Art of Computer Programming, Vol 2, Donald E. Knuth, ISBN 0-201-89684-2, 762pp, Addison Wesley Longman, 1998. Abstract: The chief purpose of this chapter [4] is to make a careful study of the four basic processes of arithmetic: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Many people see arithmetic as a trivial thing that children learn and computers do, but we will see that arithmetic is a fascinating topic with many interesting facets. ... Note: Third edition. See especially sections 4.1 through 4.4.
liu1978 ¿Web?	Error-Correcting Codes in Binary-Coded-Decimal Arithmetic, Chao-Kai Liu and Tse Lin Wang, IEEE Transactions on Computers, Vol. 27 #11, pp977–984, IEEE, November 1978. Abstract: Error-correcting coding schemes devised for binary arithmetic are not in general applicable to BCD arithmetic. In this paper, we investigate the new problem of using such coding schemes in BCD systems. We first discuss the general characteristics of arithmetic errors and define the arithmetic weight and distance in BCD systems. We show that the distance is a metric function. Number theory is used to construct a class of single-error-correcting codes for BCD arithmetic. It is shown that the generator of these codes possesses a very simple form and the structure of these codes can be analytically determined.
ris1976 ¿Web?	A Unified Decimal Floating-Point Architecture for the Support of High-Level Languages, Frederic N. Ris, ACM SIGNUM Newsletter, Vol. 11 #3, pp18–23, ACM Press, October 1976. Abstract: This paper summarizes a proposal for a decimal floating-point arithmetic interface for the support of high-level languages, consisting both of the arithmetic operations observed by application programs and facilities to produce subroutine libraries accessible from these programs. What is not included here are the detailed motivations, examinations of alternatives, and implementation considerations which will appear in the full work. Note: Also in ACM SIGARCH Computer Architecture News, Vol 5 #4, pp21-31, October 1976. Also in ACM SIGPLAN Notices, Vol 12 #9, pp60-70, September 1977. Also in IBM RC 6203 (#26651) 11pp, September 1976.
sacks1982 ¿Web?	Applications of Redundant Number Representations to Decimal Arithmetic, R. Sacks-Davis, The Computer Journal, Vol. 25 #4, pp471–477, November 1982. Abstract: A decimal arithmetic unit is proposed for both integer and floating-point computations. To achieve comparable speed to a binary arithmetic unit, the decimal unit is based on a redundant number representation. With this representation no loss of compactness is made relative to binary coded decimal (BCD) form. In this paper the hardware required for the implementation of the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are described and the properties of floating-point arithmetic based on a redundant number representation are investigated.
smith1975 ¿Web?	Comments on a Paper by T. C. Chen and I. T. Ho, Alan Jay Smith, CACM Vol. 18 #8, pp463–463, ACM Press, August 1975. Abstract: (None.)
soule1975 ¿Web?	Addition in an Arbitrary Base Without Radix Conversion, Stephen Soule, Communications of the ACM Vol. 18 #6, pp344–346, ACM Press, June 1975. Abstract: This paper presents a generalization of an old programming technique; using it, one may add and subtract numbers represented in any radix, including a mixed radix, and stored one digit per byte in bytes of sufficient size. Radix conversion is unnecessary, no looping is required, and numbers may even be stored in a display (I/O) format. Applications to Cobol, MIX, and hexadecimal sums are discussed.
takashi1998 ¿Web?	Floating Point Number Format with Number System with Base of 1000, Y. Takashi, IBM Technical Disclosure Bulletin, 01-98, pp609–610, IBM, January 1998. Abstract: Disclosed is a use number system with a base of 1000 instead of 2 at the mantissa part of a floating point number. The unit is 10 bit. Each 10 bit keeps the value between 0 and 1000. This format is superior to Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) because it can keep more decimal numbers in the same size. This format is superior to binary because 1000 is 100 times of 10, and it makes no difference when converted to/from human’s decimal format.
taub1970 ¿Web?	Experimental Computer for Schools, D. M. Taub, C. E. Owen, and B. P.. Day, Proceedings of the IEE, Vol. 117 #2, pp303–312, IEE, February 1970. Abstract: The computer is a small desk-top machine designed for teaching schoolchildren how computers work. It works in decimal notation and has a powerful instruction set which includes 3-address floating-point instructions implemented as ‘extracode’ subroutines. Addressing can be absolute, relative or indirect. For input it uses a capacitive touch keyboad, and for output and display a perfectly normal TV receiver is used. Another input/output device is an ordinary domestic tape recorder, used mainly for long term storage of programs. To make the operation of the machine easy to follow, it can be made to stop at certain stages in the processing of an instruction and automaticaly display the contents of all registers and storage locations relevant at that time. The paper gives a description of the machine and a discussion of the factors that hav influenced its design.
wagner1989 ¿Web?	Error detecting decimal digits, Neal R. Wagner and Paul S. Putter, Communications of the ACM Vol. 32 #1, pp106–110, ACM Press, January 1989. Abstract: We were recently engaged by a large mail-order house to act as consultants on their use of check digits for detecting errors in account numbers. Since we were not experts in coding theory, we looked in reference books such #as Error Correcting Codes [7] and asked colleagues who were familiar with coding theory. Uniformly, the answer was: There is no field of order 10; the theory only works over a field. This article relates our experi- ences and presents several of the simple decimal- oriented error detection schemes that are available, but not widely known. Note: ACM abstract: Decimal-oriented error detection schemes are explored in the context of one particular company project.
yuen1977 ¿Web?	A New Representation for Decimal Numbers, C. K. Yuen, IEEE Transactions on Computers, Vol. 26 #12, pp1286–1288, IEEE, December 1977. Abstract: A new representation for decimal numbers is proposed. It uses a mixture of positive and negative radixes to ensure that the maximum value of a four bit decimal digit is 9. This eliminates the more complex carry generation process required in BCD addition.

The 31 references listed on this page are selected from the bibliography on Decimal Arithmetic collected by Mike Cowlishaw. Please see the index page for more details and other categories.

Last updated: 10 Mar 2011
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